The Jamaica Injury Surveillance System: a profile of the intentional and unintentional injuries in Jamaican hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Injuries in Jamaica are a major public health problem as demonstrated by a hospital based computerized injury surveillance system established in 1999 that provides a risk profile for injuries. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: Injury data from 2004 were selected to provide an annual profile, as comprehensive injury data were available from nine public hospitals. These nine public hospitals provide care for 70% of the Jamaicans admitted to hospitals annually. RESULTS: Data are presented on unintentional injuries where falls caused 44%, lacerations 27% and accidental blunt injuries were 17% of these. For motor vehicle related injuries, 55% were sustained while commuting by motorcars, 17% while riding motorbikes/bicycles and 16% of those injured were pedestrians. Most violence related injuries were due to fights (76%) with acquaintances (47%) who used sharp objects (40%) to inflict the injury. CONCLUSION: The Jamaica Injury Surveillance System (JISS) data, augmented by data collected on injuries from the health centres and the sentinel surveillance system, give a measure of the magnitude of the impact of injuries on the health services. The JISS provides data on the profile of injuries seen and treated at health facilities in Jamaica. In collaboration with police data and community-based surveys, it can be used to complete the risk profiles for different types of injuries. The data generated at the parish, regional and national levels form the basis for the design and monitoring of prevention programmes, as well as serve to support and evaluate policy, legislative control measures and measures that impact on interventions.

Perinatal factors in students admitted to the University of the West Indies data from the Jamaican Perinatal Study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare perinatal and social factors in students admitted to The University of the West Indies (UWI), Kingston, Jamaica, at age 18 years with those in the rest of the Jamaican Perinatal Cohort. METHOD: The Jamaican Perinatal Survey recorded demographic and perinatal details in 10 527 or 97% of births in Jamaica in September and October 1986. Eighteen years later 140 of these were admitted to the UWI in Kingston, Jamaica. The perinatal features of these UWI students have been compared with the rest of the Perinatal Survey Cohort. RESULTS: Mothers of UWI students were older (p < 0.001), more likely to be married at the time of birth (p < 0.001), had earlier and more complete antenatal care (p < 0.05) and greater educational achievement at time of pregnancy (p < 0.001). These mothers of UWI students were also more likely to have diabetes (p < 0.01), operative deliveries (p < 0.01) and to attend private hospitals (p < 0.01). The UWI students had fewer siblings by their mothers (p < 0.05), were less likely to be low birthweight babies (p = 0.035) and more likely to be full-term (37-42 weeks) than lower gestational age (p = 0.005). Differences in Apgar scores did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: The students of the University of the West Indies were more likely to come from smaller families with features indicative of a better quality of life. They were also of higher birthweight and tended to be full-term. The lack of association of Apgar scores with educational attainment is noteworthy.

Integrating research into policy and programmes. Examples from the Jamaican experience.

Research into selected health problems across the life cycle are discussed with respect to the application and impact of the findings on policy, programme development and health outcomes. Special emphasis is placed on health research that focussed on the perinatal period, the young child and adolescent, the epidemics of chronic diseases and violence and the linkage between health and tourism. The lessons learnt over more than two decades of practice in the field of public health from conducting research aimed at developing an indigenous evidence base for policies and programmes in Jamaica are summarized.

Maternal mortality surveillance in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVES: To assess factors associated with under-reporting of maternal deaths from 1998, when maternal deaths became a Class I notifiable event in Jamaica and continuous maternal mortality surveillance was introduced, through 2003. METHODS: The number of deaths notified was compared with the number of independently identified deaths for each period and region studied, and key informants reported on their experience of the surveillance process. RESULTS: By 2000, approximately 80% of maternal deaths were reported, and was more consistent in 2 of the 4 regions. In these 2 regions someone was responsible for active surveillance and there was an established maternal mortality committee to review cases. Factors associated with nonreporting were no postmortem examination, death in the first trimester of pregnancy, and time interval between pregnancy termination and death. The surveillance staff requested guidelines on monitoring interregional transfers and technical assistance in developing action plans. CONCLUSION: Active hospital surveillance must include all wards, including the emergency department. Community surveillance should include forensic pathologists. National leadership is needed to summarize trends, address policy, and provide technical assistance to the surveillance staff.

Growth curves for normal Jamaican neonates / Curvas de crecimiento en los neonatos jamaicanos normales

The aim of this study was to provide standards for the assessment of birthweight, head circumference and crown-heel length for normal, singleton newborns of predominantly West African descent. Data were collected for 10 482 or 94of all recorded births in Jamaica during the two-month period September 1 to October 31, 1986. After editing procedures, data were available for 6178 (birthweight), 5975 (head circumference), and 5990 (crown-heel length). The data presented in tables and growth curves include birthweight, head circumference and crown-heel length for males and females separately, for gestational ages 30-43 weeks. Data sets from the University Hospital of the West Indies in 1990 and 1999 were used to explore the possibility of secular change over the period 1986-1999. In conclusion, these ethnic and gender-specific growth curves are based on the most extensive dataset currently available in Jamaica for babies of West African descent.

Growth curves for normal Jamaican neonates.

The aim of this study was to provide standards for the assessment of birthweight, head circumference and crown-heel length for normal, singleton newborns of predominantly West African descent. Data were collected for 10 482 or 94% of all recorded births in Jamaica during the two-month period September 1 to October 31, 1986. After editing procedures, data were available for 6178 (birthweight), 5975 (head circumference), and 5990 (crown-heel length). The data presented in tables and growth curves include birthweight, head circumference and crown-heel length for males and females separately, for gestational ages 30-43 weeks. Data sets from the University Hospital of the West Indies in 1990 and 1999 were used to explore the possibility of secular change over the period 1986-1999. In conclusion, these ethnic and gender-specific growth curves are based on the most extensive dataset currently available in Jamaica for babies of West African descent.

Urban Jamaican children's exposure to community violence.

Exposure to violence in childhood is associated with aggression in adulthood. The high level of community violence in Jamaica is likely to expose Jamaican children to violence. There has been no detailed study of the exposure of Jamaican children to violence in their daily lives. Some 1674 urban 11-12-year-old children, previously part of a national birth cohort study, completed a questionnaire detailing their exposure to violence as witnesses, victims and aggressors. Their parents completed a socio-economic questionnaire. Jamaican children had high levels of exposure to physical violence. A quarter of the children had witnessed severe acts of physical violence such as robbery, shooting and gang wars, a fifth had been victims of serious threats or robbery and one in every twelve had been stabbed. Children reported being least exposed to sexual violence and to being shot at. Robbery was an almost universal experience affecting children from all schools and socio-economic groups. The single commonest experience as a victim of violence was the loss of a family member or close friend to murder, affecting 36.8% of children. Children's experiences of witnessing violence occurred chiefly in their communities but their personal experiences of violence occurred at school. Boys and children attending primary school had greater exposure to violence as witnesses and victims. Socio-economic status discriminated exposure to physical violence as witnesses but not as victims. Intervention strategies to reduce children's exposure to violence should include community education on the impact of exposure to violence on children, particularly the loss of a significant person, and the development of a range of school-based violence prevention programmes.

High risk health behaviours among adult Jamaicans.

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of high risk health behaviours among adult Jamaicans aged 15-49 years in 2000, and to compare the results with the 1993 survey. A nationally representative sample of 2013 persons aged 15-74 years was surveyed in 2000 using cluster sampling in the Jamaica Healthy Lifestyle Survey (Wilks et al, unpublished). Interviewer administered questionnaires and anthropometrical measurements were done. Data for a sub-sample of adults aged 15-49 years were analyzed The sub-sample included 1401 persons (473 men and 928 women). Significantly more men (18.6%) than women (4.3%) reported never having had a blood pressure check (p = 0.0001). Approximately one-third of the women reported that they had never had a Pap smear (36.0%) or a breast examination (31.2%). Current cigarette smoking was reported in 28.6% of men and 7.7% of women (OR 3.73 CI 2.71, 5.15), while 49.0% of men and 15.0% of women ever smoked marijuana (OR 3.28 CI 2.56, 4.20). Significantly more men (28.0%) than women (11.7%) reported ever having a sexually transmitted disease (OR 2.93 CI 2.16, 3.97); having more than one sexual partner in the past year (49.1% vs 11.4%, OR 4.31 CI 3.22, 5.76) and usually using a condom during sexual intercourse (55.3% vs 40.5%, OR 1.3 CI 1.11, 1.68). Between 1993 and 2000, significant trends include: more persons reported having a blood pressure check, a reduction in multiple sexual partners, increased condom use at last sex (women), reduced crack/cocaine use (males) and increased marijuana smoking. Although there were some significant positive lifestyle trends between 1993 and 2000, high risk behaviours remain common among Jamaican adults. Comprehensive health promotion programmes are needed to address these risk behaviours.

High risk health behaviours among adult Jamaicans / Conductas de Alto Riesgo para la Salud entre los Adultos Jamaicanos

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of high risk health behaviours among adult Jamaicans aged 15-49 years in 2000, and to compare the results with the 1993 survey. A nationally representative sample of 2013 persons aged 15-74 years was surveyed in 2000 using cluster sampling in the Jamaica Healthy Lifestyle Survey (Wilks et al, unpublished). Interviewer administered questionnaires and anthropometrical measurements were done. Data for a sub-sample of adults aged 15-49 years were analyzed The sub-sample included 1401 persons (473 men and 928 women). Significantly more men (18.6) than women (4.3) reported never having had a blood pressure check (p = 0.0001). Approximately one-third of the women reported that they had never had a Pap smear (36.0) or a breast examination (31.2). Current cigarette smoking was reported in 28.6 of men and 7.7 of women (OR 3.73 CI 2.71, 5.15), while 49.0 of men and 15.0 of women ever smoked marijuana (OR 3.28 CI 2.56, 4.20). Significantly more men (28.0) than women (11.7) reported ever having a sexually transmitted disease (OR 2.93 CI 2.16, 3.97); having more than one sexual partner in the past year (49.1 vs 11.4, OR 4.31 CI 3.22, 5.76) and usually using a condom during sexual intercourse (55.3 vs 40.5, OR 1.3 CI 1.11, 1.68). Between 1993 and 2000, significant trends include: more persons reported having a blood pressure check, a reduction in multiple sexual partners, increased condom use at last sex (women), reduced crack/cocaine use (males) and increased marijuana smoking. Although there were some significant positive lifestyle trends between 1993 and 2000, high risk behaviours remain common among Jamaican adults. Comprehensive health promotion programmes are needed to address these risk behaviours

El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar la prevalencia de conductas de alto riesgo para la salud entre adultos jamaicanos comprendidos en las edades de 15 a 49 en el año 2000, y comparar los resultados con la investigación realizada en 1993. Una muestra nacional representativa de 2013 personas comprendidas en las edades de 15 a 74 años, fue sometida a investigación en el 2000, usando el muestreo por cluster del Jamaica Healthy Lifestyle Survey (Wilks et al, inédito). Se realizaron entrevistas en forma de cuestionarios, así como mediciones antropométricas. Se analizaron los datos de una sub-muestra de adultos entre edades de 15 a 49 años. La submuestra incluyó 1401 personas (473 hombres y 928 mujeres). Un número de hombres significativamente mayor (18.6%) que el de las mujeres (4.3%) reportaron no haber tenido nunca un chequeo de la presión (p = 0.0001). Aproximadamente un tercio de las mujeres reportó no haberse hecho nunca la prueba citológica (36.0%) o el examen de mamas (31.2%). El hábito actual de fumar cigarrillos fue reportado en el 28.6% de los hombres y el 7.7% de las mujeres (OR 3.73 CI 2.71, 5.15), mientras que el 49.0% de los hombres y el 15% de las mujeres nunca fumó marihuana (OR 3.28 CI 2.56, 4.20). Significativamente más hombres (28.0%) que mujeres (11.7%) reportaron no haber tenido nunca enfermedades de transmisión sexual (OR 2.93 CI 2.16, 3.97); haber tenido más de una pareja sexual en el año anterior (49.1% vs 11.4%, OR 4.31 CI 3.22, 5.76), y usar comúnmente condón durante el acto sexual (55.3% vs 40.5%, OR 1.3 CI 1.11, 1.68). Entre 1993 y 2000, las tendencias significativas incluyen lo siguiente: más personas reportaron el chequeo de la presión sanguínea, una reducción en las parejas sexuales múltiples, el aumento del uso de condones en el último acto sexual (mujeres), la reducción en el uso de crack/cocaína (hombres), y aumento en el consumo de marihuana para fumar. Aunque hubo algunas tendencias positivas significativas en cuanto al estilo de vida entre 1993 y el 2000, los comportamientos de alto riesgo siguieron siendo comunes entre los adultos jamaicanos. Se necesitan programas generales de la promoción de la salud para abordar estas conductas de alto riesgo.

Urban Jamaican children's exposure to community violence / Niños jamaicanos en zonas urbanas expuestos a la violencia de las comunidades

Exposure to violence in childhood is associated with aggression in adulthood. The high level of community violence in Jamaica is likely to expose Jamaican children to violence. There has been no detailed study of the exposure of Jamaican children to violence in their daily lives. Some 1674 urban 11-12-year-old children, previously part of a national birth cohort study, completed a questionnaire detailing their exposure to violence as witnesses, victims and aggressors. Their parents completed a socio-economic questionnaire. Jamaican children had high levels of exposure to physical violence. A quarter of the children had witnessed severe acts of physical violence such as robbery, shooting and gang wars, a fifth had been victims of serious threats or robbery and one in every twelve had been stabbed. Children reported being least exposed to sexual violence and to being shot at. Robbery was an almost universal experience affecting children from all schools and socio-economic groups. The single commonest experience as a victim of violence was the loss of a family member or close friend to murder, affecting 36.8 of children. Children's experiences of witnessing violence occurred chiefly in their communities but their personal experiences of violence occurred at school. Boys and children attending primary school had greater exposure to violence as witnesses and victims. Socio-economic status discriminated exposure to physical violence as witnesses but not as victims. Intervention strategies to reduce children's exposure to violence should include community education on the impact of exposure to violence on children, particularly the loss of a significant person, and the development of a range of school-based violence prevention programmes

La exposición a la violencia en la niñez se halla asociada con la agresión en la edad adulta. El alto nivel de violencia comunitaria en Jamaica, tiende a exponer a los niños jamaicanos a la violencia. Hasta el momento no ha habido un estudio detallado de la exposición de los niños jamaicanos a la violencia en sus vidas diarias. Unos 1 674 niños urbanos de 11 a 12 años de edad, quienes previamente formaban parte de un estudio de cohorte de nacimientos a escala nacional, respondieron a una encuesta dando detalles de su exposición a la violencia como testigos, víctimas y agresores. Sus padres respondieron una encuesta socioeconómica. Los niños jamaicanos presentaban altos niveles de exposición a la violencia física. Una cuarta parte de los niños había sido testigo de serios actos de violencia física, tales como robo con fuerza, tiroteos y guerras entre pandillas rivales. Una quinta parte de ellos había sido víctima de serias amenazas o de robo, y uno de cada doce había sido apuñalado. Los niños informaron haber estado menos expuestos a la violencia sexual y a los disparos. El robo fue casi una experiencia universal que afectó a los niños de todas las escuelas y grupos socio-económicos. La experiencia más común en cuanto a ser víctimas de la violencia estuvo dada por la pérdida de algún miembro de la familia o algún amigo cercano por asesinado, lo cual afectó al 36.8% de los niños. Las experiencias de los niños en relación con haber sido testigos de hechos violentos, tuvieron lugar principalmente en sus comunidades, pero sus experiencias personales de violencia ocurrieron en la escuela. Los niños que asistían a la escuela primaria estuvieron más expuestos a la violencia como testigos y como víctimas. El estatus socio-económico resultó un criterio discriminante en cuanto a la exposición a la violencia física en forma de testigo, pero no como la víctima. Las estrategias de intervención para reducir este problema deben incluir la educación de la comunidad respecto al impacto de la exposición de los niños a la violencia - particularmente con respecto a la pérdida de alguna persona importante para ellos - así como el desarrollo de una serie de los programas de prevención de la violencia

Strategies to prevent eclampsia in a developing country: I. Reorganization of maternity services.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether changes in primary and secondary care service delivery could prevent antenatal eclampsia. METHOD: One intervention (St. Catherine) and two control (St. Ann, Manchester) parishes were chosen. The health system in St. Catherine was restructured. Primary antenatal clinics had clear instructions for referring patients to a high-risk antenatal clinic or to hospital. Guidelines were provided to high-risk clinics and the antenatal ward for appropriate treatment of hypertension and preeclampsia when induction of labor should occur. Antenatal eclampsia incidence was monitored before and during the intervention and compared with control parishes (no intervention). Each eclampsia case was investigated to identify inadequacies in the system. RESULTS: The process resulted in better identification of women at risk. Antenatal eclampsia incidence dropped dramatically as care improved. Compared with control areas, by completion of the study, the rate was significantly lower than at the start: OR 0.19 (95% CI: 0.13-0.27; p<0.001 trend). Antenatal admissions for hypertensive disorders declined significantly, and the number of bed days halved. CONCLUSION: Reorganization of maternal care can have major public health benefits and cost savings; however, women need to be alerted to recognise and act upon signs of impending eclampsia.

Strategies to prevent eclampsia in a developing country: II. Use of a maternal pictorial card.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy and acceptability of a patient-held pictorial card aimed at raising awareness and appropriate health seeking behavior in response to prodromal symptoms of imminent eclampsia. METHOD: Pictorial cards (and posters) were issued to antenatal clinics and used to focus instruction and advice to pregnant women. Mothers were surveyed before and after the cards were introduced to assess maternal likelihood of seeking care if edema was seen, and of attending hospital if so advised. We monitored the eclampsia rate. Health workers were interviewed 6 months after cards and posters were issued to determine the acceptability of using the cards as part of routine antenatal care. RESULTS: The card was seen as widely acceptable by health professionals, and increased their own awareness of the prodromal symptoms of eclampsia and their discussion of these symptoms with antenatal mothers. Mothers' awareness and response to symptoms improved significantly and there was a marked drop in eclampsia incidence. Suggested improvements to the card were made by mothers and health workers. CONCLUSION: The cost of providing a card for every pregnant mother is likely to be offset by health service delivery savings.

Registration of births, stillbirths and infant deaths in Jamaica.

BACKGROUND: Vital statistics underestimate the prevalence of perinatal and infant deaths. This is particularly significant when these parameters affect eligibility for international assistance for newly emerging nations. OBJECTIVE: To determine the level of registration of livebirths, stillbirths and infant deaths in Jamaica. METHODOLOGY: Births, stillbirths and neonatal deaths identified during a cross-sectional study (1986); and infant deaths identified in six parishes (1993) were matched to vital registration documents filed with the Registrar General. RESULTS: While 94% of livebirths were registered by one year of age (1986), only 13% of stillbirths (1986) and 25% of infant deaths (1993) were registered. Post neonatal deaths were more likely to be registered than early neonatal deaths. Frequently the birth was not registered when the infant died. Birth registration rates were highest in parishes with high rates of hospital deliveries (rs = 0.97, P < 0.001) where institutions notify the registrar of each birth. Hospital deaths, however, were less likely to be registered than community deaths as registrars are not automatically notified of these deaths. CONCLUSIONS: To improve vital registration, institutions should become registration centres for all vital events occurring there (births, stillbirths, deaths). Recommendations aimed at modernizing the vital registration system in Jamaica and other developing countries are also made.

PIP: Vital statistics indicate only part of the actual prevalence of perinatal and infant mortality. Findings are reported from a study conducted to determine the level of registration of live births, stillbirths, and infant deaths in Jamaica. Births, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths identified during a 1986 cross-sectional study and infant deaths identified in six parishes during 1993 were matched to vital registration documents filed with the Registrar General. While 94% of live births were registered by one year of age, only 13% of stillbirths and 25% of infant deaths were so registered. Post neonatal deaths were more likely to be registered than early neonatal deaths. Frequently the birth was not registered when the infant died. Birth registration rates were highest in parishes with high rates of hospital deliveries where institutions notify the registrar of each birth. Hospital deaths, however, were less likely to be registered than community deaths since registrars are not automatically noticed of such deaths. Institutions should register all vital events occurring there.

Maternal mortality in Jamaica: health care provision and causes of death.

Details of 62 maternal deaths occurring in 1986/1987 were compared with a control population. The incidence was 11.5 per 10,000 livebirths. The major cause of maternal mortality was hypertension followed by hemorrhage and infection. There were trends with advanced maternal age and high parity. The risk of maternal death varied with hospital facilities available, being lowest in areas with access to a specialist hospital and highest in areas where there were no obstetricians available.

Identifying maternal deaths in developing countries: experience in Jamaica.

Multiple sources were used to identify maternal deaths and their causes in a study carried out in Jamaica. These sources of information included a review of all deaths of women aged 12 to 49 years and included those occurring in hospitals (on maternity, surgical and medical wards and in casualty departments); reported to coroners' offices and the police; on whom post-mortems were carried out at hospitals, public morgues and for the Ministry of National Security; obtained from interviews with public health staff in all parishes and which were registered with the Registrar General's Department. Some 193 maternal deaths were identified giving a maternal mortality rate of 10 per 10,000 live births. No one source independently identified all maternal deaths. Hospital in-patient records yielded 133 deaths (69%), death certificates 74 (38%). Deaths due to certain causes were far more likely to be identified from particular sources eg those due to clinical mismanagement (complications of anaesthesia and blood transfusion) from hospital in-patient records; while deaths from ruptured ectopic pregnancy were more likely to come from coroners', police and morgue records. It is concluded that using multiple sources to identify maternal deaths in developing countries is an effective method to identify all maternal deaths.

The quality of care is related to death rates: hospital inpatient management of infants with acute gastroenteritis in Jamaica.

The quality of care of random samples of about 40 infants admitted with acute gastroenteritis to each of five hospitals in Jamaica was assessed. Low levels of adherence to consensus care criteria appeared to be correlated with high levels of hospital-specific severity standardized mortality ratios X100 (SSMRs); poor adherence, SSMR 127-230; intermediate adherence, SSMR 95; good adherence, SSMR 14. The main deficiencies in care at certain hospitals were: non-weighing of infants, incomplete physical examination, inadequate estimation of fluid requirements, and irregular recording of fluid intake. To improve the effective care of infants with gastroenteritis, a quality assurance program is required.

Maternal deaths in Jamaica

A confidential inquiry ito maternal deaths in Jamaica revealed that almost two-thirds were attributable to pre-eclampsia/eclampsia, haemorrhage, rupture ectopic pregnancy, or sepsis. Avoidable factors that might have increased the probability of death were identified, and recommendations aimed at reducing maternal mortality were presented